In 2002, the French president Jacques Chirac famously opened his speech with these words Notre Maison brule et nous regardons ailleur.” Our house is burning down and we’re blind to it.”   Chirac became the first world leader to warn of the danger of climate change. He said: “Nature, mutilated and overexploited, can no longer regenerate and we refuse to admit it. Humanity is suffering. It is suffering from poor development, in both the North and the South, and we stand indifferent. The earth and humankind are in danger and we are all responsible.”

Fast-forward to September 2019, and a series of international strikes and protests demanding action to address climate change. At the same time, Extinction Rebellion’s non-violent environmental movement brought London to a standstill by blocking roads and disrupting the underground network.

Climate change phenomena is frequently mentioned in newspapers and on TV. Gradually, shops are displaying messages claiming their participation in environmental protection. Many governments around the world are taking measures to tackle the issue of climate change.

In the UK, according to a poll carried by IPSOS, 85% of Britons are concerned about climate change.[1] Yet, a huge number of British Muslims do not appear to believe  that climate change is real or that is something to be concerned at all. Some mosques have only begun to act recently in trying to improve the environment. But we are a long way from the passion that is usually displayed within the community on matters of lesser importance.

In 2008, Islamic Fiqh Academy of India held a seminar in which Sheikh Khalid Saifullah Rahmani warned of the effect of deforestation and the melting of ice among other things. At the end of the seminar, a few resolutions were adopted against pollution. The seminar was attended by scholars from various Islamic sects from around the country and by two delegations from Qatar and Iran.[2]

There has also been an Islamic declaration on global warming made by several scholars from around the world at a gathering in Istanbul in 2015.[3]

However, as far as I am aware, most mosques and imams in Britain have not endorsed or invited British Muslims to follow the message.

As Muslims, what should our position be on this matter? Does climate change concern us, or should we just ignore what is being said around us, and move on and leave everything in the Hands of Allah?

In this paper, I will briefly look at what climate change is and how it affects us. Thereafter, I will examine the connection between the environment and Muslims.

What is climate change?

According to the Met Office, climate change refers to a large-scale, long-term shift in the planet’s weather patterns and average temperatures.

Since the mid-1800s, humans have contributed to the release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air. This causes global temperatures to rise, resulting in long-term changes to the climate.[4]

When greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide build in the atmosphere, they act like a blanket around the Earth. When sunlight (ultraviolet radiation) hits this blanket, it passes straight through and continues until it reaches the surface of the planet.

The earth then absorbs this sunlight and emits a different type of light, infrared radiation, back out to space. As it leaves the atmosphere, the infrared radiation also hits the greenhouse gas blanket. Most of it goes straight through, but some of it is absorbed and goes back down to earth. This traps the infrared radiation and causes the surface to heat – a process referred to as the ‘greenhouse effect’.

It is vital to understand that the greenhouse effect is crucial to life on earth. Without a blanket of greenhouse gases trapping in heat, the temperature would be bitterly cold, and humans would be unable to survive. However, by adding extra greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, humans enhanced the greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse gas blanket is now thicker and is absorbing more infrared radiation than before. In other words, the greenhouse effect is stronger, and instead of keeping the Earth at a stable temperature, it is causing the planet to heat up.

What are the sources of greenhouse gases?

One-quarter of human-made greenhouse gas emissions come from burning fossil fuels for electricity and heat production.

Another quarter of human-made greenhouse gas emission comes from Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU).

To feed our livestock and ourselves, people have chopped down large areas of the forest and used the land to grow crops. Forests are very good at removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and so cutting down trees allows carbon dioxide to build up in the atmosphere even more.

Land can also be used to rear livestock, such as cattle for meat and milk. These animals produce additional gases, like methane. They also eat crops that might otherwise have been needed by humans, meaning that even more land is required.

As well as fossil fuels, deforestation, land use, aeroplanes and the production of cement also contribute to emissions of carbon dioxide. [5]

Impacts of global warming on earth

Rising sea level:

The Arctic is the epicentre of global warming. The best-known consequence of Arctic heating is rising sea levels. It is worth noting that melting sea ice does not raise the water level, for the same reason that melting ice cubes do not make a cup overflow. However, water trapped on land in Greenland’s ice caps does increase the sea level when it melts in the ocean.

Average sea levels have swelled over 8 inches (about 23 cm) since 1880, with about three of those inches gained in the last 25 years. Every year, the sea rises another .13 inches (3.2 mm). [6] Experts predict that the rise in the sea level, will eventually have a devastating impact on inhabitants living in coastal regions, which are highly susceptible to flooding. There are some 1.6m kilometres of coastline shared between the 140 countries that face the sea. Along this are two-third of the world’s large cities.[7]

The Maldives has a population which is nearly 100% Muslims. Scientists predict that the archipelago of the Maldives could disappear under the rising sea. 80% of the land is less than a metre above sea level[8]. In the capital a wall has been built surrounding the city, and the protection using this barrier method is being implemented elsewhere. Bangladesh is doubling its coastal embankment system and repairing existing infrastructure. Indonesia intends to build $40bn wall in the shape of a giant mythical bird to seal Jakarta off from the seas.[9]

Here in England, 1.2 million homes will be at risk of coastal flooding and 100,000 properties will be threatened by the 2080s.

It is important to understand that unlike tsunamis, the ocean will not rise suddenly and flood all coastal areas in one go. The seas will rise slowly and encroach onto the land overtime. The encroachment will be permanent and the water will stay and not retreat.

Change in weather temperature

A heatwave is an extended period of hot weather relative to the expected conditions of the area at that time of year, which may be accompanied by high humidity.

As someone who migrated from the hot tropical island of Reunion, I cannot express how happy I feel when summer comes, and the sun is shining. I could probably not even explain the pleasure I find in just being outside in the summer heat whether it is morning or evening. Yet we tend to underestimate the havoc that can be caused by extreme heat. In 2003, it is estimated that a heatwave in Europe claimed the lives of 70,000 people.[10]

Heatwaves are extreme weather events, but research shows that climate change is making these events more likely. A scientific study by the Met Office into the summer 2018 heatwave in the UK showed that it was 30 times more likely to occur now than in 1750 because of the higher concentration of carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) in the atmosphere. As greenhouse gas concentrations increase, heatwaves of similar intensity are projected to become even more frequent, perhaps occurring as regularly as every other year.

Muslims too will affected as scientists have predicted that pilgrims will be facing extreme heat conditions in the future when going for hajj.[11]

Droughts

A team at NASA ran 17 different climate models, and all of them showed that there are likely to be longer and more intense droughts in the future.

As an example, in Panama there have been several droughts since 2014 which indicates that dry seasons are becoming longer.[12]

Droughts will pose serious challenges to the safety, health, food and water supplies of plants, animals, and humans in some regions of the world, and floods will do the same in others.[13]

We must realise the danger these challenges can represent in terms of safeguarding peace among the inhabitants of this planet. Let us take Rwanda as an example, where environmental scarcity, was one of the main reasons that contributed to the Rwandan genocide.[14] Similarly, in 2019, we have witnessed the Christchurch mosque massacre, where the terrorist motivation of his crime was also motivated by eco-fascism. Eco-fascism promotes the idea that overpopulation is affecting the environment, and can be resolved by curbing the non-white populations.[15]

Defining the Environment

The term environment is an overly broad term with various meanings according to the context in which it is used. One definition given is the following: “environment may be regarded as a ‘space’ or a ‘field’ in which networks of relationships, interconnections and interactions between entities occur.” This includes the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of environmental systems, and especially the interactions of those components.[16] This definition, given by the ecologists, is similar to how Muslims must understand the concept of the environment.

As Muslims, we believe that everything that has been created in the universe has a purpose. Nothing God created is in vain.

God says: “We did not create the heavens and the earth and everything between them playfully. If We had wished for a pastime, We could have found it within Us– if We had wished for any such thing.” [Surat 21:V16]

Sheikh Khalid Saifullah Rahmani described how God Universe was created to flourish for a long time, and that while natural resources may appear insignificant, they are important to the health and safety of humanity.[17]

We must embrace the idea that the environment consists of all creations, from humans to the stars, from those as small as an atom to those as big as a galaxy. The environment is the space in which specific relations are adopted between various groups of components, be they living or non-living, physical or spiritual, visible or unseen, and also between a human being and his fellow human, and between a human and his Creator.[18]

Muslims and the Environment

Climate change is not just a scientific concern. The phenomenon encompasses economics, sociology, geopolitics as well as national and local politics[19]. Muslims from all around the world will be affected, thus, we must learn about it in order to be prepared for repercussions that will affect future generations.

However, it is true that climate change is not an issue mentioned in the Quran and not found in the traditions of the Prophet (pbuh). Perhaps this is why many Muslims are reluctant to believe in climate change. The point of this paper is not to refute those who deny it, but it is to demonstrate that tackling the causes of climate change, is not just for those who believe in it rather it is the duty of every single Muslim to take the necessary step to protect the environment and those around us.

However, before steps can be taken, people must educate themselves.

As Fazlun Khalid says: “Our increasingly urban lives have ensured an almost total disconnection from the natural world to the extent that it is not uncommon to meet children who believe that milk originates in plastic supermarket cartons. It is as well to be conscious of this as much is left out in their education, both religious and secular, to the extent that we are continuing to cause irreparable harm to the Earth. Muslims are no exception to this, having also adopted urban lifestyles `and modern modes of living that reveal an almost complete lack of awareness as to where this is all going. Taking children to the zoo or visiting national parks is more in the nature of recreational activity and reinforces the idea of otherness. The educational aspects remain lamentably superficial, and the spiritual is nowhere to be seen.”[20]

It might feel easy to say that we must protect the environment because Islam says so. But what does ‘protecting the environment’ even mean? There may be people who believe that talking about the environment is a less pressing issue in comparison to others for example poverty, to economic crisis and wars.

For many, the danger of not taking care of nature is nothing but scientific folklores. Perhaps they should reflect on the fate of the inhabitants of Easter Island and ponder upon what Jared Diamond described as ‘the collapse’ of its civilisation[21]. Even then, why should a Muslim turn to historians and scientists to understand their role on Earth? Is it not enough that His Lord revealed a book that he can seek guidance from? When He decided to create him, the first mention God makes to the angels is not that I am creating a new species or human. No, the first mention is the role that this new creation will be having until the end of Days. Effectively, He says: “I am putting a vicegerent on Earth…” [Surat 2:V30]

The role came with great responsibility that revolves around the establishment of justice on Earth: justice towards himself, towards his family, towards society and everything else that is part of the environment including the Creator of all.

Yet, for many, the objective was either forgotten or diluted with other personal agendas pushed on the name of justice. Connections became loose or severed between each of the environment’s components. Hence, those claiming to be subservient to God must reconnect and tie lose ends if they chose to pursue the initial objective of viceregency.

In this respect, Muslims must understand that what they hear from science is not always a conspiracy to move people away from God, neither it a scaremongering tactic to control them. What they hear is simply and purely knowledge. The same knowledge bestowed by God upon humanity, as a tool to establish themselves as successful vicegerents on Earth.

Muslims will only be able to help solve the environmental crisis once they educate themselves about the Islamic importance of the ecosystem, and learn about the harm it must be protected from. If they chose to turn a blind eye to education and knowledge, then it is a sign of rejecting the role they were tasked with when God created them.

How to approach the protection of the environment

  1. Appreciating the sanctity of Earth and the environment:

Muslims believe that for humans, life is a journey in this world, and the final abode is in the Hereafter. This can cause an amalgam between the unimportance of life on Earth, and what Earth as a planet, and the environment as a whole, truly represent. We must realise that both are means of meditation, and not just of consumption.

Earth is mentioned in multiple places in the Quran. Every mention can be categorised under various headings that would give the reader an outlook on the greatness and sanctity of its creation.

Let us look at some of those verses:

The uniqueness of God in the creation of Earth

“Say [Prophet], ‘Praise be to God and peace on the servants He has chosen. Who is better: God, or those they set up as partners with Him? Who created the heavens and earth? Who sends down water from the sky for you– with which We cause gardens of delight to grow: you have no power to make the trees grow in them– is it another god beside God? No! But they are people who take others to be equal with God. Who is it that made the earth a stable place to live? Who made rivers flow through it? Who set immovable mountains on it and created a barrier between the fresh and salt water? Is it another god beside God? No! But most of them do not know. Who is it that answers the distressed when they call upon Him? Who removes their suffering? Who makes you successors in the earth? Is it another god beside God? Little notice you take! Who is it that guides you through the darkness on land and sea? Who sends the winds as heralds of good news before His mercy? Is it another god beside God? God is far above the partners they put beside him! Who is it that creates life and reproduces it? Who is it that gives you provision from the heavens and earth? Is it another god beside God?’ Say, ‘Show me your evidence then, if what you say is true.’” [Surah 27: V59-64]

“Say, ‘How can you disregard the One who created the earth in two Days? How can you set up other gods as His equals? He is the Lord of all the worlds!’ He placed solid mountains on it, blessed it, measured out its varied provisions for all who seek them––all in four Days. Then He turned to the sky, which was smoke––He said to it and the earth, ‘Come into being, willingly or not,’ and they said, ‘We come willingly’–– and in two Days He formed seven heavens, and assigned an order to each. We have made the nearest one beautifully illuminated and secure. Such is the design of the Almighty, the All Knowing.” [Surat 41: V9-12]

The greatness of God displayed in the creation of the Earth

“Another of His signs is the creation of the heavens and earth, and the diversity of your languages and colours. There truly are signs in this for those who know. Among His signs are your sleep, by night and by day, and your seeking His bounty. There truly are signs in this for those who can hear. Among His signs, too, are that He shows you the lightning that terrifies and inspires hope; that He sends water down from the sky to restore the earth to life after death. There truly are signs in this for those who use their reason. Among His signs, too, is the fact that the heavens and the earth stand firm by His command. In the end, you will all emerge when He calls you from the earth. Everyone in the heavens and earth belongs to Him, and all are obedient to Him. He is the One who originates creation and will do it again– this is even easier for Him. He is above all comparison in the heavens and earth; He is the Almighty, the All Wise.” [Surat 30: V22-26]

As a means of reflection on the purpose of its creation

“We did not create the heavens and the earth and everything between them playfully. If We had wished for a pastime, We could have found it within Us– if We had wished for any such thing.” [Surat 21: V16]

“There truly are signs in the creation of the heavens and earth, and in the alternation of night and day, for those with understanding, who remember God standing, sitting, and lying down, who reflect on the creation of the heavens and earth: ‘Our Lord! You have not created all this without purpose– You are far above that!– so protect us from the torment of the Fire.” [Surat 3: V191 ]

In relation to the environment’s functional laws

“We send the winds to fertilize, and We bring down water from the sky for you to drink– you do not control its sources” [Surat 15: V22]

“Control of the heavens and earth belongs to God: and to God is the final return. Do you not see that God drives the clouds, then gathers them together and piles them up until you see rain pour from their midst? He sends hail down from [such] mountains in the sky, pouring it on whoever He wishes and diverting it from whoever He wishes– the flash of its lightning almost snatches sight away. God alternates night and day– there truly is a lesson in [all] this for those who have eyes to see” [Surat 24: V42-44]

“The sun, too, runs its determined course laid down for it by the Almighty, the All Knowing. We have determined phases for the moon until finally it becomes like an old date-stalk. The sun cannot overtake the moon, nor can the night outrun the day: each floats in [its own] orbit.” [Surat 36: V38-40]

There are many more verses which could have been included, however, we cannot mention all of them. What we must understand from them, is that the Earth is sacred, we must identify how we are defiling its sanctity. Only then, we will be able to bring the necessary changes about.

  1. Understanding our responsibility

“We offered the Trust to the heavens, the Earth, and the mountains, yet they refused to undertake it and were afraid of it; mankind undertook it– they have always been inept and foolish.” [Surat 33: V72]

Mankind was given the trust or responsibility to act as vicegerent on Earth. His primary objective was to uphold the command and will of God in order to establish justice across the Earth.

Today we must ask ourselves, how much justice have we contributed towards our fellow humans and other creatures of the Earth?

According to the latest WWF report, the population size of mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians have declined an average of 68% between 1970 and 2016. This indicates the broken relationship between humans and nature.[22] We must be foolish to think for an instant that we will not be questioned about this. God says: “And the record [of deeds] will be placed [open], and you will see the criminals fearful of that within it, and they will say, “Oh, woe to us! What is this book that leaves nothing small or great except that it has enumerated it?” And they will find what they did present [before them]. And your Lord does injustice to no one. [Surat 18: V46] The hadiths tell us that a courtesan was forgiven because she pitied a dog and went down a well to get water for him. On the other hand, a pious person who used to worship God, ended up being punished by Him, because she locked up a cat in a room and left it to die.

This indicates how greatly our actions can decide between salvation or retribution. How about the damages we have caused to those on this Earth for our greed and pleasure?

Abu Hurairayh (ra) says: “God will gather the creation altogether on the Day of Resurrection: the beasts, the creatures, the birds, everything. Then they will seek the justice of God on that day, even between the hornless sheep and the horned sheep.”[23]

God says: “all the creatures that crawl on the earth and those that fly with their wings are communities like yourselves.” [Surat 6: V38]

Commenting on the above verse, Imam Qurtubi says: “They are groups like you in that God the Exalted has created them, provides for them, and makes justice between them. Thus, you should not wrong them or transgress the limits that you have been commanded.[24]

  1. Moving forward

Once we have understood the harm we are causing to the environment, the importance of protecting it, and accepting our duty in upholding the trust that was given to us, then we should move forward.

We need both a short term and a long-term approach.

The short-term approach should be the responsibility of the individuals, which would bring changes into our lives in a way that is impactful on the protection of the environment. For example, we need to revaluate our consumption of meat. It may not be an easy task, and it will surely involve certain sacrifices.

The overproduction of meat has a disastrous impact on the environment. To produce meat, we need land. To achieve this, men have resorted to deforestation, which has a negative effect on the ecosystem of the forest, but also adds to the risk of climate change.

Research has shown that if we reduced (not even stopped completely) our intake of meat, this would cut food-related greenhouse-gas emissions.

Since starting this paper a year ago, I have managed to reduce my consumption of meat by 50%.

75% of the meat I consume is from free range or organic sources.

I also ensure that I buy responsibly sourced fish.

Private transport is one of the world’s biggest sources of greenhouse gases, with emissions rising every year. For this reason, many experts advocate the use of alternatives such as public transport, walking to work when possible, or changing to electric cars.

As I have no choice but to use the car to go to work, I have switched to one that has low Co2 emissions.

Another important change that we must consider is the use of plastic. Most of the world’s plastic ends up in the ocean. When it does, it can wash up on a distant beach or choke a seal.

I would like to reduce my use of plastic bin bags; hence I am looking at some alternatives at this moment in time.

There are many methods we could adopt to help the environment. There are plenty of resources available on the internet to guide people through these steps.

Long term approach

In the long term, the Muslim community must work together in tackling in the pollution of the environment. Imams and committees must look at ways to make mosques greener. For example, the case of Cambridge Central Mosque, in Mill Road. The interior of this mosque was made with sustainable timber. It also featured zero carbon on-site emissions, rainwater harvesting and air source heat pumps.[25]

The Islamic Foundation for Ecology and Environmental Sciences has on their website, guidelines on how to make mosques greener.[26]

Islamic schools and madrassahs should create more cleaning activities within the area they are located in. In this regard, Ilm2Amal charity has organised successful cleaning activities with schools and madrassahs across the country. For example, in 2016, 150 children helped to pick up litter on the street of Newham in London.[27]

Muslim charities must create more projects that not only help in alleviating poverty, but also in protecting the ecosystem in poor countries. This is where waqf project as part of a sadaqah jariyah can come into place. For example, since we can now tokenise natural asset such as trees to protect the environment, this process could be used as a mean of encouraging others to buy trees as a mean of reward from God. In this regard there is a hadith that says, “There is none amongst the Muslims who plants a tree or sows seeds, and then a bird, or a person or an animal eats from it, but is regarded as a charitable gift for him.” [narrated by Bukhari]

Above all, scholars must collaborate to develop the fiqh of environment. The principles to establish the fiqh are in place, but there is a need to learn its application in this corresponding field. There are yet many questions that must be answered by scholars, as a means of guidance for the Muslim community.

Here are some questions I have gathered. some have been put forward in the book on the Environmental Issues produced by Islamic Fiqh Academy of India.

  • What is the ruling on excessive consumption of electricity e.g. leaving the lights on unnecessarily in a house or mosque?
  • What does Islam say about deforestation and uprooting trees?
  • Under what circumstances would cutting trees be permissible?
  • Is it permissible to drive a car that is more pollutant to the environment?
  • What is the ruling on buying eggs from caged hens?
  • What is the ruling on purchasing meat through productions that are harmful to the animal and to the environment? And should the meat be certified as Halal?
  • What is the ruling on causing pollution to the environment in general?
  • What is the ruling for not recycling important household waste?
  • What is the ruling for Muslim shops and restaurants in using excessive plastic bags and containers?
  • What is the ruling on mosques distributing plastic bottles of water in Ramadan?

The need to develop a Fiqh of the environment

Imam Shatibi explained that legislation in Islam, is to benefit the people, and protect them from being harmed.[28] Indeed, for a scholar to issue a ruling (especially on things that are not clear from the primary sources), he must be aware on what is beneficial and harmful to people. Ultimately, there is no disagreement between any scholars, on the fact that the objectives of the shariah, is to protect the interest of the people in this world and the hereafter.[29]

In Islam we have principles in place regarding the protection of the environment in general. For example, the Quran tells about not creating corruption on the earth.

It says: “do not cause corruption in the land after it has been set in order: this is better for you, if you are believers.”[Surat 7: V56] In another verse it says: “‘Eat and drink the sustenance God has provided and do not cause corruption in the land.’[Surat 2: V60]

Imam Razi explained the word Arabic word fasaad i.e. ‘corruption’ by saying that it is the process of making something beneficial useless.[30]  In another place it says: “When he leaves, he sets out to spread corruption in the land, destroying crops and livestock–God does not like corruption.” Imam Qurtubi says that this verse includes everything that can be a cause of harm on the Earth, or the wealth, or the religion.

We also have other principles found in the tradition of the prophet (pbuh). For example, he says: “do not waste water even if you were at a running stream “. (Ibn Maajah)

This should make us rethink our usage of water. How much of it do we waste daily in performing wudhu? We must understand that water is so precious that wars have been fought and will continue to be fought over its control.[31]

In another hadith it says: “do not cause harm or return harm.” [Muwatta Malik]. The importance of this hadith in Islam is such, that some have considered the fiqh to be based upon five hadith, one of which is this one.[32] However, Islam has not explained in detail the meaning of harm. For this reason, it is down to scholars of all era to assess and determine what is a ‘harm’.[33] Furthermore, they will have to ask Muslims to reconsider the negative impacts, their lifestyle may have on the environment, whether directly or indirectly.

There are many more legal maxims and principles that have not been mentioned, it is for the scholars to use them to bring benefits to the community and keep harm away from them.

In conclusion, the world is facing huge challenges pertaining to the impact of climate change. The phenomenon is being accelerated by the behaviour of mankind towards the Earth. Hence, there is a need for people to wake up and take the necessary actions to tackle this issue. Muslims should not feel unconcerned by this matter. In fact, they must be aware of how important the environment is in Islam. Only then, will they able to reconnect themselves with the Earth and its inhabitants. Finally, scholars must lead the community in protecting the environment. For that, they will have to equip themselves with the necessary understanding.  As ultimately, knowledge is the greatest tool that could determine, how we live our lives in a way that is beneficial to every living soul on Earth.

(Mufti) Billal Omarjee

[1] https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/concern-about-climate-change-reaches-record-levels-half-now-very-concerned

[2] Environmental Issues (2010). 1st edn. India: IFA Publications

[3] https://www.ifees.org.uk/about/islamic-declaration-on-global-climate-change/declaration-drafting-team/

[4] https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/climate-change/what-is-climate-change

[5] https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/climate-change/what-is-climate-change

[6] https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/sea-level-rise/

[7] The Rising Seas 2019, The Economist, viewed 19th August 2019, pp. 16-20.

[8] Géopolitique Des Iles en 40 cartes 2019, Le Monde HS, viewed 3rd Septembre 2019, pp. 85

[9] The Rising Seas 2019, The Economist, viewed 19th August 2019, pp. 16-20.

[10] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631069107003770

[11] http://muslimnews.co.uk/newspaper/environment/climate-change-affecting-hajj/

[12] Beyond seasonable drought 2019, The Economist, viewed 22 September 2019, pp. 53-66.

[13] https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2881/earths-freshwater-future-extremes-of-flood-and-drought/

[14] Diamond J. (2006). Effondrement : Comment les sociétés décident de leur disparition ou de leur survie. France, Edition Gallimard

[15] https://www.currentaffairs.org/2019/10/extinction-rebellion-has-a-politics-problem

[16] https://www.soas.ac.uk/cedep-demos/000_P500_ESM_K3736-Demo/unit1/page_08.htm

[17] Environmental Issues (2010). 1st edn. India: IFA Publications

[18] Tribak, (2007). Manẓūr al-Islām ilá al-muḥāfaẓah ʻalá al-bīʼah, Rabat, Wizārat al-Awqāf wa-al-Shuʼūn al-Islāmīyah

[19] Maslin, M, (2014). Climate Change: A Very Short Introduction. 3rd edn. Oxford University Press

[20] Khalid, F, (2019). Signs on The Earth: Islam, Modernity, and the Climate Crisis. Markfield, Kube Publishing

[21] Diamond J. (2006). Effondrement : Comment les sociétés décident de leur disparition ou de leur survie. France, Edition Gallimard

[22] https://www.wwf.org.uk/living-planet-report

[23] Ibn Khatir, Tafsir of the Quran, Beirut: Dar-Kutub Al Ilmiyah.

[24] Qurtubi, Al-Jami’ li Ahkam al-Qur’an, Cairo: Dar-kutub Misriya.

[25] https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-48044025

[26] https://www.ifees.org.uk/projects/green-mosque-projects/mosques-as-green-project-exemplars/

[27] https://www.newhamrecorder.co.uk/news/schools-help-clean-up-newham-s-streets-1-4553661

[28] Shatibi. Al Muwafaqat, Beirut: DKI

[29] Nasik. (2019) Al Nazriyah al bi’ah al Islamiyah, Rabat: Dar Nachr Al Maarifa

[30] Razi. Al Tafsir Al Kabir, Beirut: Ihyaa Al Turath

[31] Water conflicts 2019, The Economist, viewed 1st of March 2019, pp. 16-20.

[32] Zurqani. Sharh al Muwatta al Malik, Cairo: Maktab Thaqafa al Diniyya

[33] A. Ibn Jāmiʻ. and Islām Maḥmūd. (2014). Al-Tadābīr al-sharʻīyah lil-maqāṣid al-ḍarūrīyah, Cairo: Maktabat al-Balad al-Amīn